A ''nation'' may refer to a community of people who share a common language, culture, ethnicity, descent, or history. In this definition, a ''nation'' has no physical borders. However, it can also refer to people who share a common territory and government (for example the inhabitants of a sovereign state) irrespective of their ethnic make-up. In international relations, ''nation'' can refer to a ''country'' or ''sovereign state''. The word ''nation'' can more specifically refer to people of North American Indians, such as the Cherokee Nation that prefer this term over the contested term tribe.

According to Joseph Stalin writing in 1913 in ''Marxism and the National Question'': "a nation is not a racial or tribal, but a historically constituted community of people;" "a nation is not a casual or ephemeral conglomeration, but a stable community of people;" "a common language is one of the characteristic features of a nation;" "a nation is formed only as a result of lengthy and systematic intercourse, as a result of people living together generation after generation;" "a common territory is one of the characteristic features of a nation;" "a common economic life, economic cohesion, is one of the characteristic features of a nation;" "a common psychological make-up, which manifests itself in a common culture, is one of the characteristic features of a nation;" "A nation is a historically constituted, stable community of people, formed on the basis of a common language, territory, economic life, and psychological make-up manifested in a common culture." According to Stalin, this would exclude Jews as they have no common territory.

An alternative view, expressed by Otto Bauer, author of ''Social Democracy and the Nationalities Question'' (1907), that "A nation is an aggregate of people bound into a community of character by a common destiny." would include Jews. R. Springer, author of ''The National Problem'' (1909), also cited by Stalin in his discussion of this matter, held similar views.

Etymology

The word ''nation'' came to English from the Old French word ''nacion'', which in turn originates from the Latin word ''natio'' ('''') literally meaning "that which has been born".

As an example of how the word ''natio'' was employed in classical Latin, the following quote from Cicero's ''Philippics Against Mark Antony'' in 44 BC contrasts the external, inferior ''nationes'' ("races of people") with the Roman ''civitas'' ("community"):

An early example of the use of the word "nation" (in conjunction with language and territory) was provided in 968 by Liutprand (the bishop of Cremona) who, while confronting the Byzantine emperor, Nicephorus II, on behalf of his patron Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor, declared:

Medieval ''nationes''

A significant early use of the term ''nation'', as ''natio'', occurred at mediaeval universities to describe the colleagues in a college or students, above all at the University of Paris, who were all born within a ''pays'', spoke the same language and expected to be ruled by their own familiar law. In 1383 and 1384, while studying theology at Paris, Jean Gerson was elected twice as a procurator for the French ''natio''. The University of Prague adopted the division of students into ''nationes'': from its opening in 1349 the ''studium generale'' which consisted of Bohemian, Bavarian, Saxon and Polish ''nations''.

In a similar way, the ''nationes'' were segregated by the Knights Hospitaller of Jerusalem, who maintained at Rhodes the hostels from which they took their name "where foreigners eat and have their places of meeting, each nation apart from the others, and a Knight has charge of each one of these hostels, and provides for the necessities of the inmates according to their religion", as the Spanish traveller Pedro Tafur noted in 1436.

See also

Citizenship

Civilization

Country

Culture

Ethnic group

Government

Identity (social science)

Identity politics

Imagined communities

Indigenous peoples

Intercultural competence

Invented traditions

List of sovereign states

List of states with limited recognition

Lists of ethnic groups

Lists of people by nationality

Meta-ethnicity

Multinational state

Nation (university)

National emblem

Nationalism

Nationality

Nation state

Polity

Race (classification of humans)

Separatism

Society

Sovereign state

Territorial dispute

Territory

Tribe

Qaum

References

Category:Ethnicity Category:Indigenous peoples of North America Category:Nationality Category:Native American topics Category:Political geography Category:Political science terms

kn

af:Nasie als:Nation ar:أمة an:Nación arc:ܐܘܡܬܐ ast:Nación av:Миллат az:Millət bn:জাতি be:Нацыя be-x-old:Нацыя bg:Нация bar:Nation ca:Nació cs:Národ cy:Cenedl da:Nation de:Nation et:Rahvus el:Έθνος (κοινωνιολογία) es:Nación eo:Nacio ext:Nacion eu:Nazio fa:ملت fo:Tjóð fr:Nation ga:Náisiún gl:Nación ko:국민 hr:Narod io:Naciono id:Bangsa iu:ᐃᓅᖃᑎᒌᑦ ᐃᓕᖅᑯᓯᖃᑎᒌᒃᑐᑦ is:Þjóð it:Nazione he:אומה ka:ერი kk:Ұлт sw:Taifa ht:Nasyon la:Natio lv:Nācija lt:Tauta hu:Nemzet mk:Нација mr:राष्ट्र ms:Bangsa cdo:Mìng-cŭk mn:Үндэстэн my:လူမျိုး nl:Natie new:राष्ट्र ja:国民 no:Nasjon nn:Nasjon pl:Naród pt:Nação ro:Națiune rmy:Sel rue:Нація ru:Нация sc:Natzione sq:Kombi scn:Nazziuni si:දේශය simple:Nation sk:Národ sl:Narod so:Qaran ckb:نەتەوە sr:Народ fi:Kansakunta sv:Nation th:ชาติ tg:Миллат tr:Millet uk:Нація ur:قوم vec:Nasion yi:פאלק (נאציאן) yo:Ìbínibí zh:民族

name	Black Man
author	Richard Morgan
country	Great Britain
language	English
genre	Science fiction novel
publisher	Victor Gollancz Ltd
release date	17 May 2007
media type	Print (Hardcover & Paperback)
pages	560 pp (Hardcover)546 pp (Paperback)
isbn	ISBN 0-575-07513-9 (UK Hardcover)ISBN 0-575-07813-8 (UK Paperback)ISBN 0-345-48525-0 (US Hardcover)
oclc	78989112
followed by	}}

''Black Man'' is a 2007 science fiction novel by Richard Morgan. It won the 2008 Arthur C Clarke Award. It was published as ''Thirteen'' in North America. It is not part of the Takeshi Kovacs universe by the same author. However, there are enough references to shared historical events to argue that, ''Black Man'' can be seen as a very early prequel to the Takeshi Kovacs novels. ie: the colonization of Mars, Cryosleep used to facilitate space travel, and the concept of transferring a human consciousness into an alternate body.

Plot

Carl Marsalis is a genetic variant known as a 'Thirteen', characterized by high aggression and low sociability. Bred to serve in a military capacity, Thirteens were later confined on reservations or exiled to Mars. Carl, having won by lottery the right to return from Mars, works covertly, tracking down renegade Thirteens. The novel follows Carl's attempts to apprehend a Mars escapee and uncover the forces shielding his quarry.

References

Category:2007 novels Category:British science fiction novels Category:Novels by Richard Morgan

bg:Вариант 13 fr:Black Man

Name	Dred Scott
Birth date	1795
Birth place	Unknown
Death date	September 17, 1858
Death place	St. Louis, Missouri
Nationality	American }}

Dred Scott (1795 – September 17, 1858), was a black American slave in the United States who unsuccessfully sued for his freedom and that of his wife and their two daughters in the ''Dred Scott v. Sandford'' case of 1857, popularly known as "the Dred Scott Decision." His case was based on the fact that although he and his wife Harriet Scott were slaves, he had lived with his master Dr. John Emerson in states and territories where slavery was illegal according to both state laws and the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, including Illinois and Minnesota (which was then part of the Wisconsin Territory). The United States Supreme Court decided 7-2 against Scott, finding that neither he nor any other person of African ancestry could claim citizenship in the United States, and therefore Scott could not bring suit in federal court under diversity of citizenship rules. Moreover, Scott's temporary residence outside Missouri did not bring about his emancipation under the Missouri Compromise, which the court ruled unconstitutional as it would improperly deprive Scott's owner of his legal property.

While Chief Justice Roger B. Taney had hoped to settle issues related to slavery and Congressional authority by this decision, it aroused outrage and deepened sectional tensions. President Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, and the post-Civil war Thirteenth, Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments nullified the decision.

Overview

The case raised the issue of the status of slaves who had been held while residents in a free state. Such states and territories held that a slaveholder forfeited his rights to property by illegally holding a slave to a state that prohibited the institution and where there was no law to support his controlling the slave. Congress had never before addressed whether slaves were free if they set foot upon free soil. The ruling overturned the Missouri Compromise as unconstitutional, since it ruled that as slavery was protected in the Constitution, Congress could not regulate it in the federal Territories and deprive a slave owner of his property without due process. This conclusion enraged the abolitionist Republicans and further exacerbated sectional sentiments that led to the American Civil War. Newspapers at this time covered the case very well, showing people's interest in the topic. Depending on the newspaper (abolitionist or southern) the reporters would either show approval or disapproval towards the decision to deny Scott his freedom.

Scott often traveled with his master Dr. John Emerson, a surgeon in the US Army, who was regularly transferred under Army command. Scott's stay with his master in Illinois, a free state, gave him the legal leverage to make a claim for freedom, as did his extended stay at Fort Snelling in the Wisconsin Territory (now Minnesota), where slavery was also prohibited. Scott did not file a petition for freedom while living in the free lands—perhaps because he was unaware of his rights at the time, or because he was afraid of the possible repercussions. After two years, the army transferred Emerson to territory where slavery was legal: first to St. Louis, Missouri, then to Louisiana. After getting married in Louisiana, Emerson commanded the Scotts to return to him. They could have refused the order by staying in the free territory of Wisconsin (now Minnesota), or by going to the free state of Illinois, but instead they went down the Mississippi River to Louisiana; a voyage of more than . Emerson died in 1843; his widow directed Scott to work for another officer. At this change Scott sought freedom for his family and himself. He offered 300, about $}} in current value, to Emerson's widow, Irene, but she refused to release him. Scott then went to the St. Louis Circuit Court to obtain his freedom.

Life

In the late 1790s, Dred Scott was born into slavery in Southampton County, Virginia, as property to the Peter Blow family. From what experts can conclude, Scott was originally named Sam and had an older brother named Dred. However, when the brother died as a young man, Scott chose to take his brother's name instead. The Blow family settled near Huntsville, Alabama, where they unsuccessfully attempted farming.

In 1830 the Blow family took Scott with them when they relocated to St. Louis, Missouri. They sold him to John Emerson, a doctor serving in the United States Army.

Marriage and family

In 1836 Dred Scott met a teen-aged slave named Harriet Robinson whose master was Major Lawrence Taliaferro, an army officer from Virginia. Taliaferro allowed Scott and Harriet to marry and transferred his ownership of Harriet to Dr. Emerson so the couple could be together. A couple of years later, Harriet gave birth to their first child, Eliza. In 1840, they had another daughter whom they named Lizzie. Eventually they would also have two sons, however, neither survived past infancy.

Dr. Emerson married Irene Sanford, and the Emersons and Scotts returned to Missouri in 1842. When Dr. Emerson died the following year, his widow took over the estate. Scott offered to purchase his freedom from the widow Emerson, but she refused his request.

Dred Scott case

Having failed to purchase his freedom, in 1846 Scott filed legal suit in St Louis Circuit Court through the help of a local lawyer. Historical details about why Scott sought recourse in the court system are unclear. The ''Scott v. Emerson'' case was tried in 1847 in the federal-state courthouse in St. Louis. The judgment went against Scott, but having found evidence of hearsay, the judge called for a retrial.

In 1850, a Missouri jury concluded that Scott and his wife should be granted freedom since they had been illegally held as slaves during their extended residence in the free jurisdictions of Illinois and Wisconsin. Irene Emerson appealed. In 1852, the Missouri Supreme Court struck down the lower court ruling, saying, "Times now are not as they were when the previous decisions on this subject were made." They ruled that the precedent of "once free always free" was no longer the case, overturning 28 years of legal precedent. They told the Scotts they should have sued for freedom in Wisconsin. Justice Hamilton R. Gamble, a future governor of the state, sharply disagreed with the majority decision and wrote a dissenting opinion. The Scotts were returned to their master's wife.

Under Missouri law at the time, after Dr. Emerson had died, powers of the Emerson estate were transferred to his wife's brother, John F. A. Sanford. Because Sanford was a citizen of New York, Scott's lawyers "claimed the case should now be brought before the Federal courts, on the grounds of diverse citizenship." With the assistance of new lawyers (including Montgomery Blair), the Scotts filed suit in the federal court.

After losing again in federal district court, they appealed to the United States Supreme Court in ''Dred Scott v. Sandford''. (The name is spelled 'Sandford' in the court decision due to a clerical error.)

On March 6, 1857, Chief Justice Roger B. Taney delivered the majority opinion. Taney ruled that:

Any person descended from Africans, whether slave or free, is not a citizen of the United States, according to the Constitution. (Note: Only 3/5ths of a state's slave population total was counted in their population total. Contrary to popular belief, slaves were not counted as 3/5ths of a person for purposes of congressional representation. They were considered property in historic records. There were free blacks in several of the 13 states when the Constitution was written. Their number increased dramatically in the Upper South in the first two decades after the Revolution; for instance, by 1810, fully 10 percent of the population in the Upper South were free blacks, as numerous slaveholders manumitted their slaves in this period, inspired by Revolutionary principles of equality.)

The Ordinance of 1787 could not confer either freedom or citizenship within the Northwest Territory to non-white individuals.

The provisions of the Act of 1820, known as the Missouri Compromise, were voided as a legislative act, since the act exceeded the powers of Congress, insofar as it attempted to exclude slavery and impart freedom and citizenship to non-white persons in the northern part of the Louisiana Purchase.

The Court had ruled that African Americans had no claim to freedom or citizenship. Since they were not citizens, they did not possess the legal standing to bring suit in a federal court. As slaves were private property, Congress did not have the power to regulate slavery in the territories and could not revoke a slave owner's rights based on where he lived. This decision nullified the essence of the Missouri Compromise, which divided territories into jurisdictions either free or slave. Speaking for the majority, Taney ruled that because Scott was simply considered the private property of his owners, that he was subject to the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution, prohibiting the taking of property from its owner "without due process".

The decision increased tensions between pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions in both North and South, further pushing the country towards the brink of civil war.

Following the ruling, Scott and his family were returned to Emerson's widow. In the meantime, her brother John Sanford had been committed to an insane asylum. In 1850, Irene Sanford Emerson had remarried. Her new husband, Calvin C. Chaffee, was an abolitionist, who shortly after was elected to the US Congress. Chaffee was apparently unaware that his wife owned the most prominent slave in the United States until one month before the Supreme Court decision. By then it was too late for him to intervene, and Chaffee was harshly criticized for having been married to a slaveholder. He was able to convince his wife Irene to return Scott to his original owners, the Blow family. By this time, The Blow family had relocated to Missouri and become opponents of slavery, granting the Scotts emancipation by Henry Taylor Blow on May 26, 1857, less than three months after the Supreme Court ruling. Scott went to work as a porter in St. Louis for nearly 17 months before he died from tuberculosis in September 1858. Scott was survived by his wife and his two daughters.

Scott was originally interred in Wesleyan Cemetery in St. Louis. When this cemetery was closed nine years later, Taylor Blow transferred Scott's coffin to a plot in the nearby Catholic cemetery, Calvary Cemetery, St. Louis, Missouri, which permitted burial of non-Catholic slaves by Catholic owners. A local tradition later developed of placing Lincoln pennies on top of Scott's gravestone for good luck.

Harriet Scott was long thought to be buried near her husband, but it was later proven that she was buried in Greenwood Cemetery in Hillsdale, Missouri. She outlived her husband by 18 years, dying on June 17, 1876.

Legacy

In 1997, Dred and Harriet Scott were inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame.

Their daughter Eliza Scott married and had two sons. Lizzie never married, but following her sister's early death, she helped raise her nephews. One of Eliza's sons died young, but the other married and has descendants, some of whom still live in St. Louis as of 2010.

Aftermath

The Dred Scott Case ended the prohibition of slavery in federal territories and prohibited Congress from regulating slavery anywhere. The ruling of the court helped catalyze sentiment for Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation and the three constitutional amendments ratified shortly after the Civil War: the Thirteenth, Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments, abolishing slavery, granting former slaves citizenship, and conferring citizenship to anyone born in the United States.

See also

Slavery in the United States

Charlotte Dupuy

Polly Berry

Freedom suits

Further reading

|pages=}}

References

External links

"Dred Scott Case Collection": Official Court Documents and Supplementary Information, Washington University in St. Louis

"Freedom Suits", ''African-American Life in St. Louis, 1804-1865, from the Records of the St. Louis Courts'', Jefferson National Expansion Memorial, National Park Service

Revised Dred Scott Case Collection

Christyn Elley, "Biography of Dred Scott", Missouri State Archives

Full text of the ''Dred Scott v. Sandford'', Supreme Court decision Findlaw

''Dred Scott v. Sandford'' and related resources, Library of Congress

"Dred Scott Chronology", Washington University in St. Louis

Harriet Scott's grave located, Afrigeneas Forum

Dred Scott Heritage Foundation

Mark Shurtleff, "Am I Not A Man? The Dred Scott Story"

Category:1795 births Category:1858 deaths Category:American slaves Category:Freedom suits in the United States Category:United States slavery case law Category:Deaths from tuberculosis Category:People from St. Louis, Missouri Category:Infectious disease deaths in Missouri Category:People from Southampton County, Virginia Category:Burials at Bellefontaine and Calvary Cemeteries

da:Dred Scott de:Dred Scott fr:Dred Scott hr:Dred Scott he:דרד סקוט pl:Dred Scott simple:Dred Scott sv:Dred Scott